Nepalese Women at the Crossroads: Which Road to Choose?

Nepal is one of the smallest and least developed countries in the world yet rich in diversity in geography, culture and social system. Nepal has above 100 castes and ethnicities, over 90 languages, various cultures and traditions. This diversity has brought severe disparities between men and women. The geography of the country has restricted physical mobility of women within their locality. Today more than 80% of the total population live in rural areas, where 60% are women who undertake 66% of the agricultural labor and has contributed 40% of the total GDP. However, their work has neither been acknowledged nor recognized.

They have little access to the economic resources they generate. Although the agricultural sectors employs majority of the labor force, a part of the population in rural areas is unable to afford their basic needs itself, modern amenities aren’t anywhere close to available. In every society, men and women are considered as equals. However, this belief is far away when it comes to practice in Nepal. Nepalese society has created a distinct role for men and women since its formation. Men and women have different roles, norms and opportunities. Women especially in rural areas work more than 15 hours -From early in the morning till late night, they’re involved in domestic chores and agricultural work too. Still their work have not been acknowledged and recognized.

The girls are expected to help their mother from an early age and are detained to the 'inside world'- to learn the household drudgery to be a perfect 'home maker'- dutiful and loyal wife, loving mother, subservient and service provider; while boys are prepared to live in the 'outside world'- to involve in productive work- work that generates money in the form of salary, wages or income decision making etc. In many families this discrimination has been accepted as a culture of the family. Women especially in rural areas are forced to accept this strong and unjust social structure with silence. Since they are born, they are made to believe that these extreme prejudices are their fate and ensue from their „bad deeds‟ in the previous life.

In Nepal, most of the parents still strongly prefer sons over daughters because the society recognizes sons only as their child and gives full rights only to sons to carry the family name, perform death rituals and rite. Likewise, sons are considered as insurance for parents in their old age. As a result, parents prefer to wait just to give birth to a son (dhilo paye, chhora paye) in the name of preserving traditional customs. It is widely believed in “traditional families” that the birth of a son paves their way to heaven (chhora paye swarga jaane), therein fosters the derogatory attitude towards daughters. This obligates many women to give birth until they have a son. In this case, their bodies are treated like child bearing machines. These disparities still prevail in Nepalese society regardless of the feminist movement and their efforts to challenge the Supreme Court to take initiative in eliminating gender based inequalities.

Socio-cultural preferences and poverty have also contributed to increase the death of rural women during the complication in pregnancy and child delivery. Most health care services are available in cities and towns and are beyond the accessibility and affordability of rural people. Alternatively, the local health centers which are accessible (generally located in distant places) even lack sufficient common medicines. Modern medical equipment and health experts in rural areas are far from the imagination of local people. As a result, rural people are forced to believe in/rely on local traditional healers.

Many families in rural areas still hold a negative attitude towards women’s education that not only keep women in a lower status but also restricts them from greater participation in social, political and economic activities. A son’s education is considered important, and even if daughters are sent to school, they are sent to government (public) schools where the tuition till secondary education is free and the exam fee is very minimal, considering daughters to be given away as a “gift” in marriages in the name of a traditional practice called kanyadaan. Therefore, investing in daughters‟ education is seen as a disincentive for parents. Equally, other contributing factors for restricting women from attending school are: excessive workload of the households, poor economic conditions of parents, unaffordable education fees, lack of toilets, lack of female teachers and other facilities. Thus, girls are often left behind through socio-cultural practices from equal access to education.

This illiteracy has lagged women far behind men in access to material resources such as property including home and land ownership. The central bureau of statistics shows that only 10.84 women have access to land ownership compared to 89.16% of men. It also reveals that women consisting 50.04% of the total population barely has 5.51% of home ownership. Until 2002, women were not allowed to transfer citizenship to their children. Citizenship is one of the fundamental legal documents to buy land but rural people especially women are not even aware of its use and their rights. This lack of awareness has deprived their children from various social benefits that are provided by the states and agents.

Having born and brought up in this type of environment, the question that often comes to my mind is Who is responsible for this situation of women? Women who work more than 15 hours are often blamed for not doing anything and beaten by their partners. Their work is neither recognized nor acknowledged by the family and the society. And now, I finally believe, that we've reached the Crossroads.

The path now, is ours to choose. And we have to choose wisely, because every crossroad holds an unknown path, an adventure perhaps, or the road to hell….. But be forewarned, there is only One road to Heaven, and there are Nine to Hell!

A woman, in many places, is treated with respect and love, like a Goddess even. I wish that there comes a day when this comes true in Nepal too, then there will be bliss, Nepal will no more be blue.

This article was originally published in IU e-magazine (www.iuindia.com) in India on November 20, 2011. 

The Statement by H.E. Mr. Gyan Chandra Acharya Permanent Representative of Nepal to the United Nations at the 49 th Session of the Committee on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women

Madam Chairperson,  

Distinguished members of the committee,  

Ladies and gentlemen,

It is indeed a privilege and honor for me and my delegation to take part in this dialogue on the fulfillment of our national obligations under the historic convention. Let me introduce my delegation. Hon minister could not attend the meeting because of some unavoidable circumstances.  

Madam Chairperson,

Preparing a national report on the state of implementation of the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women was in itself a rewarding process of self-assessment. It provided us with an opportunity to reflect on what we, as a party to the Convention, promised to achieve, what we could achieve and where we lagged behind in realizing our aspirations for a discrimination-free and empowered society. We have already been through that broad-based exercise and the outcome thereof is presented to you. AS per the spirit of CEDAW, which looks at the issue related to women in a holistic manner, The Government of Nepal approved the National Action Plan on CEDAW in 2003. Prepared in consultation with all stakeholders, the action plan has formed the basis of our reform initiatives. The Ministry of Women, Children and Social Welfare is co-coordinating its implementation.  

  

In its thirtieth session held in January 2004, the committee considered the Combined Second and Third Periodic Reports of Nepal. The observations of the Committee have since helped re-orient our efforts where necessary.  Without repeating much of what has already been said in the report and in our subsequent response to your concerns, I would like to take this opportunity to touch on the milestones that we have passed during the reporting period and afterwards, and the challenges we are making efforts to grapple with.  

Following the popular movement of April 2006, Nepal has undergone far-reaching political changes. At present, the Constituent Assembly is at the final stage of drawing up a new Constitution. We certainly did not wait until the period of transformation to press ahead with anti-discriminatory measures or affirmative actions under the comprehensive framework of the Convention. Indeed, decisive participation of women was deemed indispensable for successful completion of this unprecedented transformation, not least the peace process associated with it. Accordingly, the House of Representatives, in May 2006, adopted a resolution calling for 

guaranteeing at least 33 per cent representation of women in all parts of the state structure with 

the aim of achieving proportionate representation ultimately. 

In September the same year, the Act to Amend Some Nepal Acts to Maintain Gender Equality was promulgated with the effect of either amending  or repealing a total of 65 provisions in various Acts that were found discriminatory against women. The Interim Constitution of Nepal 2007 represents another major step forward. The obligations, directive principles and policies of the State as enshrined in the Constitution have explicitly provided for putting a stop to gender discrimination, for ensuring women’s participation in all parts of the state machinery on the basis of proportionate inclusion, and also for taking special measures in respect of education, health care and employment. The Constitution has for the first time stated women’s fundamental rights. Parliament has continued to pass new and important legislations with a view to advancing gender equality as well as prohibiting violence or discrimination against women, including the National Commission on Women Act, 2006, the Human Trafficking and Transportation (Control) Act, 2007 and the Domestic Violence (Offence and Punishment) Act, 2009. Legislative moves are afoot to amend some 60 more discriminatory provisions in the law, to outlaw harmful social practices and to prevent sexual harassment in the workplace. The law has also enabled progressive interpretation thereof by the judiciary as reflected in a series of its verdicts of late. The directive orders of the Supreme Court of Nepal for necessary enactments or programmatic interventions issued in the light of the provisions of the Constitution and those of the Convention have been equally important. 

Madam Chairperson,

The principles of CEDAW have found expression in our development policy, too. Broadly speaking, Government of Nepal has pursued the policy of mainstreaming gender considerations in all sectors of development as well as encouraging women’s presence at all levels of authority. Women’s representation is valued not only in ownership terms but also in terms of making a difference in policy initiatives and their outcomes. Therefore we have taken a comprehensive approach to it. 

The 2006 Parliamentary Proclamation has created a wave of change in representation everywhere. The Constituent Assembly, which also functions as Legislative Parliament, was among the first to abide by the 33 per cent minimum rule. By doing so, the highest legislative body has provided an example for all other agencies to follow. Thus we see at least 33 per cent women in local peace committees, users’ groups and community-based organizations supported under various development projects. 

Earlier women’s representation would often mean one or two members; now it invariably means a minimum of the critical mass. This has given more voice to women, further encouraged gender-focused initiatives and completely changed the development landscape in the field. We intend to continue doing that in the days ahead. Women’s presence is visibly increasingly in the Civil Service, in the Nepal Police and in other institutions where it was rather obscure only a few years ago. Over 150 laws contain affirmative provisions facilitating women’s access to, or involvement in, various spheres of public activity. 

Maintaining the momentum of reform, the current Three-Year Plan (2010/11 – 2012/13) aims to eliminate discrimination and violence of all types  against women, envisages women’s representation in the state apparatus passing the 33 per cent mark, and lays emphasis on strengthening gender mainstreaming in all aspects of development, governance and service delivery. 

Continued advocacy of gender issues has its own impact. Within the government, ministries have taken the initiative in crafting sector-specific policies. The 2009 Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Policy of the Ministry of Local Development is a case in point. A new impetus to that process was provided in 2010 by elevating the level of gender focal points in ministries or other agencies. Now the chief of the Planning Division is designated as the gender focal point. Gender mainstreaming is ensured in decentralized planning and review as well. In districts the process is led by a broad-based mainstreaming committee chaired by the President of the District Development Committee and facilitated by the Women Development Officer. The district team has its own network of gender focal points in GOs and voluntarily listed NGOs. 

It has been increasingly realized that gender issues are the rights issues, that women’s participation makes all the difference everywhere, and that the superordinate goal of achieving gender equality calls for a comprehensive approach and concerted effort, widely shared ownership and reinforcement of linkages. The Ministry of Finance co-ordinates gender-responsive budgeting, the Ministry of General Administration takes the lead in affirmative reforms and the Ministries of Local Development, and Women, Children and Social Welfare have jointly executed a Gender Mainstreaming and Social Inclusion Project., Ministry of Law and Justice has initiated legal reform processes and Ministries of Education and Health lay particular emphasis on women’s empowerment through respective work programs. Similarly working together in close cooperation with the NGOs, CBOs and local groups, we intend to pursue our goal of making our society free from discrimination, together with women’s empowerment, a reality.

Madam Chairperson,          

It is in the context that translating policies into practical programs has been a priority of Government of Nepal. Various programs have been in  operation in the country with a view to addressing gender issues, expanding opportunities for women and bringing women’s agency to bear on the task of nation building. These programs include welcome-to-school campaigns, maternity incentive schemes, micro-credit services; cash transfer plans, policy-level consultations, and community-based access-to-justice initiatives.The Women Development Program is targeted for an estimated 3.9 million rural deprived women who have missed out schooling or other opportunities for development early on; this program is now extended to 3,448 of the country’s total 3,915 Village Development Committees. The Program has proved to be effective in creating  forums for participation, in forming social capital and in fostering women-led micro-enterprises. In village after village women’s groups have pulled together, fighting discrimination and violence, and creating a force for social change. Since 2003, with a separate component tailored to their needs, out-of-school adolescent girls have also been included in the target group of the program. 

In addition, a wide variety of programs is being carried out by NGOs. NGO activities are particularly effective in building public awareness, in organizing specifically marginalized groups and in giving care to those in need. Often government agencies and NGOs collaborate on such activities. Part of the strategy is to mobilize additional funding for focused programs by way of gender responsive budgeting. Initiated in 2007/08, the process has led to a gradual increase in allocations to programs that benefit women directly. Of the total budgeted expenditure for fiscal year 2011/12, that was presented a few days ago, 19 per cent will directly go to women related programs and 45 per cent is indirectly responsive to closing the gender gap. Similar steps have been taken to ensure women’s access to local government resources. The Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Policy 2009 stipulates that at least 10 per cent of the Village Development Grant should be spent on programs related to women directly. 

I would also like to put on record our gratitude to the United Nations agencies and other development partners for their continued support for the policy initiatives and implementation of various gender specific programs in Nepal.    

    

Madam Chairperson, 

The Government of Nepal has made efforts to confront violence against women on a priority basis.  More recently, we began a focused campaign  by declaring 2010 as the Year against Gender-related Violence. A specific National Action Plan was worked out with a vision to make Nepal free from violence against women and girls. Efforts have been intensified to raise awareness, institute referral mechanisms and extend services to the needy. A Gender-based Violence Complaint Management and Monitoring Unit has been set up in the Office of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers, Women and Children Service Cells have been created in District Police Offices, and networks of community and district service centers with safe houses have also been established in 15 districts for women and children affected by domestic violence. This will be further expanded in the days ahead. An inter-ministerial committee chaired by the Chief Secretary has been formed to oversee the implementation of the action plan. An Advisory Committee comprising Members of Legislative 

Parliament, Chairperson of the National Commission  on Women and NGO representatives advises the inter-ministerial committee on its functions. Activities in districts are co-ordinated by a similar committee called ‘District Resource Group’ led by the Chief District Officer. Efforts have been intensified to raise awareness, institute referral mechanisms and extend services to the needy. A complain management monitoring unit has been set up in the office of the prime minister, women service cells have been created in district police offices. 

Anti-trafficking actions have been stepped up alongside. Just now consultations are taking place on revising the 2001 National Plan of Action with an added emphasis on law enforcement. Addressing domestic violence is part of the plan as it often increases vulnerability to trafficking. Life skills and livelihood support programs for out-of-school adolescent girls have been extended to remote rural areas, and rehabilitation centres for trafficking survivors have been established in eight districts of the country.  In this process a Five-Year National Action Plan on Implementing the United Nations Security Council Resolutions 1325 and 1820 has been approved in 2010. A high-level Steering Committee chaired by the Deputy Prime Minister and  Minister for Foreign Affairs has been constituted to ensure that the resolutions are implemented effectively.    

Madam Chairperson,       

That actions are beginning to bear fruit is reflected in statistics. The proportion of people living below the national poverty line has been reduced from 42 in 1995/96 to 31 in 2003/04 and further to 25.4 in 2008/09.    

At the time of the 1991 census, Nepal was a rare case of men having a longer life expectancy than women. But that changed by the next census in  2001 and is estimated to have changed further now. Women today can expect to live 64.5 years – nearly a year more than men.  The GDI has increased from 0.452 in 2004 to 0.499 in 2009. The GEM has increased likewise – from 0.391 in 2004 to 0.496 in 2009. Considerable progress has been made in lowering the level of maternal mortality. The maternal mortality ratio has been reduced from 539 in 1996 to 281 in 2006 and further to 229 in 2009. The infant mortality rate has also registered a declining trend – from 79 in 1996 to 64.4 in 2001 and further to 48 in 2006. Within the five years of the last two DHS surveys, the TFR has been reduced by 1 – from 4.1 in 2001 to 3.1 in 2006.  

Gender parity has been achieved in primary education and gaps are closing, albeit slowly, in other areas, too. Literacy is an example. In 2001, the overall literacy rate was 53.7 per cent with a gap of 22.6 percentage points in male and female literacy rates. In 2010, the overall literacy rate has gone up to 63.7 per cent and the gap in male and female literacy rates has narrowed to 22.3 percentage points. The 2010 Progress Report indicates that Nepal is on course to achieve many of the MDG related targets, provided the global support is scaled up consistent with our national efforts. We are making our best efforts to grapple with trafficking in women and girls that takes place in various guise. There is also a growing concern for the safety of women in some cases in foreign employment, which we are making efforts to deal with.  

While there have been a number of improvements, gender disparities in development indicators are still a matter of concern. Factors often correlate and have a combined effect on disempowerment. Early marriage, for instance, frequently deprives a girl of schooling, takes its toll on her health and is also likely to weaken her say in the family.   Even with temporary special measures, women’s representation in the Civil Service stands at 13.29 per cent, indicating that much remains to be  done in meeting the target of 33 per cent representation in government agencies, private businesses and professional jobs. Similarly, we are making efforts to reach targeted programs to as many women as possible, but we face many constraints. Many are in need of specifically packaged programs, such as the Household Development Plan based on conditional cash transfer designed for conflict-affected single women and women of the  Badi community. Reaching out to all of them presents a challenge of its own, as does mobilizing extra resources for that purpose. 

Madam Chairperson,  

Government of Nepal remains committed to eliminating discrimination against women in all its forms and manifestations and empower them to contribute to an inclusive and sustainable development in the country. 

We have yet to achieve our goals, yet our achievements so far have been encouraging. If we could achieve gender parity in primary education, we certainly can do so in secondary education and, with additional efforts, in higher education in due course of time. And that will also enable proportionate representation of women everywhere, including the upper echelons of our organizations. This will have some spin off effects on many areas.

We have also learnt from experience that gains in empowerment can occur from any point on the scale. This means that the leverage lies in creating alternative opportunities for the hundreds of thousands of women who never went to school or dropped out after a few years. With gains in awareness, economic self-reliance and social influence, vulnerability will be reduced, harmful social practices will die out and discrimination will give way to equity. 

I would like to point out here that in many areas of our activities, human and financial resources have also come in the way of speedy progress towards elimination of discrimination against and empowerment of women. We all know that it is work in progress. And we believe that this dialogue will not only contribute to reviewing our  national progress and challenges, but also contribute to further encourage a scaled-up support and cooperation from the international community especially for those countries, where there is a dearth of human and financial capacity to fully and speedily implement its national objectives and obligations under CEDAW. 

Thank you for your attention

Official Source: OHCHR Website, Published Date and Place: July 20, 2011/ New York

Social Status of Nepalese Women

@United Nations

  Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) proclaims that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights and that everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedom set forth therein, without distinction of any kind, including distinction based on sex (Seo, 2011; Nepal law commission, 2007). However, violence against women is a widespread phenomenon in Nepal. The three dimensional of gender injustices are economic, cultural and political, as Fraser mentioned in new left review (2009). Nepalese women particularly in rural areas are “disempowered”[1]resulting from patriarchy,[2]social and cultural prejudices and  civil and political unjust that legitimize and maintain unequal power relation between men and women (UNESCAP, 2000 p.14; Ghandhi, 2004, p95) in all private and public sphere.

Some of the common forms of violence Nepalese women are subjected to are “domestic violence,” “sexual exploitation,” “incest,” “rape,” “sexual harassment,” “sex discrimination,” “medical abuse,” “marital rape,” “pornography and abuse of women in media,” “custodial abuse,” “female foeticide,” “dowry-related violence and murder,” and “physical and mental torture,” “culture-bound practices” and “ritual abuse” (Tuladhar cited on UNESCAP report 2000). These have been exacerbated by several others factors such as poverty,[3] domestic violence, trafficking, financial dependence, lack of education, and limited training opportunities, which have challenged to exercise women’s right in the country (UNESCAP, 2000; Martin, 2008).



Frank's Website



Nepalese society creates a distinct role for men and women since its formation. Men are the “breadwinner,” “protector”, “provider” and held a superior position within the “domestic mode of production” and control the distribution of resources and goods in the family (Subedi, 2010; p3-7).  Although women in rural villages care their family members as they rise, still most of the parents preferred sons over daughter (Martin, 2008). As a result, many women from rural and urban areas are obligated to give a birth to a child until they have a son. Their bodies are treated as if like a child bearing machines. It is widely believed in a traditional family that the birth of a son paves their way to heaven (chhora paye swarga jaane)[4] therein fosters the derogatory attitude towards women (Malla, 2000). Even now, most of the parents prefer to wait just to give birth to a son (dhilo paye, chhora paye) in the name of preserving the customs.



@Khasamproject.com



On the other hand, girls are discriminated from the day they are born. From the early ages, boys are prepared towards 'outside world' to involve in “productive”[5] and decision making function, whereas girls are detained to the 'inside world' to learn the household chores to be a perfect “home maker,” “dutiful and loyal wife,” “loving mother,” “subservient” and “service provider.” In the same way, daughters are considered to be given away as a “gift” in marriages in the name of traditional practices called kanya daan.

 Even if women are employed, they are assigned for lower clerical jobs. Their income are used as supplement, similar to what feminist Fraser define “Androcentrism” during the critique of the old paradigm of movements (2009, p101). Generally, it is acknowledged that son brightens the whole world, whereas a daughter can only brighten the kitchen (Chhora paye sansar ujayalo, chhori bhaye banchha Ujyal). The society gives the full rights only to sons to carry the family name, perform death rituals and rite (Subedi, 2010; p.16), regardless of some legal provisions to eliminate gender based inequalities. This is to mention just a few points from Subedi’s work: From the very early age, female are treated as if they are not as good as men. Young girls are fed after their brother, young wives are look after husbands, elderly women look after their sons and so the cycle continues (2010, p7). 

 On the other hand, wife is also taken as the dust of the husband foot (Srimati bhaneko paitalako dhulo ho) so, a husband owns a full “power” to do “whatever” and “whenever” he wants. This belief has also enhanced the cases of domestic violence in Nepal. There were 1,100 cases of domestic violence that have been documented at the central cell for women and children police headquarters only in 2007. The most highlighted case was Husun Idrisi from Nepalgunj, one of the western cities of Nepal. Her husband poured kerosene in her body, set a fire nearby and locked inside a toilet for not bringing enough marriage dowry, but she was survived with the help of neighbors when they heard her shouts for help (Dhakal, 2008). Similarly, four women were killed just in a week space from “zones free of violence against women”[6] in dowry related disputes by their family members in the last week of January 2008 (Dhakal, p548). How can we expect a respectable position of women in public spaces, if they are ignored and sometimes killed in their own families, by their own relatives?

There are also hundreds of undisclosed cases of domestic violence against women. Women social lawyers and workers argues that almost 70% of rape incidents are by close relatives and go unreported but the crime research branch denied the fact and only admit that 40% of rape incidents are concealed (UNESCAP, 2000). Yet, there is no any instances record of sexual cruelty in the form of sexual intercourse between a husband and a wife’s will, although there exist many.

@The Asia Foundation

 The society accepts the fighting between wife and husband as a fire in the hay which flares up quickly and dies as immediately (logne swasniko jhagada paralko ago). Thus, interference in others family matter is “not accepted” and “not advisable,” even if it is the case of intensive and serious violence and abuse (Dhakal, 2008). Additionally, women trafficking for the purpose of prostitutions are now widely increasing in an alarming rate[7] in Nepal but there is no factual information on how many women are trafficked every day, except than the Trafficking in Persons and Transportation Control Act (TPTA) 2007.

@google.com

There are number of advocacy campaigns for the public denouncement of violence against women y some NGOs (UNESCAP, 2000, p.22), but still violence against women is rampant. There is a need to understand that prejudices come from traditional norms and values and are created and fostered by human beings long time back which can be changed to benefits both sexes and make our society a better place. Women should be recognized as a partner rather than a subordinator to men. Moreover, gender should be taken into consideration as a necessity in development work to create a gender equal society.

References

United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP). “Violence against Women in South Asia.” 2000. p11-80. ISBN:9211200245. United Nations publication. New York. Print.

Malla, Sapana Pradhan. “Property Rights of Nepalese Women.” FES Nepal. March 2000.Web. 20 June 2011. http://www.nepaldemocracy.org/gender/property_rights.htm.

Subedi, Prativa. Nepali Women at the Crossroads: Gender and Development. Tripureshwar, Kathmandu, Nepal: Sahayogi Press, 2010. p1-138. Print.

Martin, Jodie. "Women and Patriarchy in Nepal: The Legal System and Patriarchal Structure Continues to Discriminate." Activism by Suite 101. 21 Aug.2008. Web.17 May 2011.              http://www.suite101.com/content/patriarchy-in-nepal-a65341.

Seo, Youngpyo. "Seminar 5: Feminist Critique of the Old Paradigm of Movements." Social Problems and Social Movements politics. MAINS. SKHU Classroom. 2011. Lecture.

Ghandhi, P.R. Blackstone’s International Human Rights Documents. 4^th edition. 8 Sept. 2004. p95-104, p472-505. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN: 0199273065. Print.

Nepal law commission. “Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of  Discrimination against Women.” 15 June 2007.Print.

Fraser, Nancy. “Feminism, Capitalism and the Cunning of history,” New Left review 56.    Mar-Apr 2009. p97-117. Print.

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         [1] The term “Disempowered” has been borrowed from the author of Nepali Women at the Crossroads which means that women have no control over resources or information, decision making role and have to work under someone else’s direction (p16).

                  [2]Patriarchy is a constant societal structure in Nepal that refers to the rule of men’s where men dominate oppressed and exploit women to extract benefits. It also encourage men to be sexually assertive to perceive women in sexual term (Subedi, 2010).

                  [3] UNESCAP reported that about 31% of the total population lives below the national poverty line, whereas, about 25% of the total population live below $1 per day in 2004 (2007, P.106). After signing MDGs, the government of Nepal has committed to reduce the national poverty line to 21% and population living $1 to 17% by 2015.

                  [4] I have written the patriarchy Nepali beliefs which reflects the derogatory attitude towards Nepalese female in the bracket and italicized. All of these beliefs that are used in my paper are taken from Malla.

                  [5]Productive work refers to the works that generate money in the form of salary, wages or income.

                  [6] A year back, the local civil society organizations have declared “zones free of violence against women” in Rupandehi and Nawalparasi, two of 75 districts in Nepal, but four women were killed for not bringing enough dowries. This is one of hundreds growing culture of impunity throughout the country.

                  [7] It is estimated that about 300,000 women are trafficked and forced to be prostitute only in Indian brothels. Other destinations of women trafficking are Middle East and some European countries.